Miguel Jorge
WriterTablets and papyri serve as time capsules. They provide fascinating glimpses into specific moments in the past, sometimes even from a first-person perspective. They encompass a range of subjects, from the world’s oldest trigonometric systems and geometry applied 1,000 years before Pythagoras to stories and accounts that reveal what life was like centuries ago. This is why the discovery of the longest Greek papyrus generated considerable excitement worldwide, only to turn out to be something quite different.
A papyrus found in the Judean Desert. A team of researchers from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem recently published a study on the Greek papyrus, which was discovered in the Judean Desert. The document, named P. Cotton, is the longest ever discovered and contains more than 133 lines. Additionally, the papyrus provides unprecedented insights into the Roman judicial system and the efforts to combat financial crime in the Empire’s Eastern provinces.
This document, previously unknown until its rediscovery in 2014, offers direct testimony regarding a trial for tax fraud and document forgery in the Roman provinces of Judea and Arabia. This region experienced significant Jewish uprisings against Rome during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD.
As it turns out, life then wasn’t so different from what it is today.
A legal testimony from imperial Rome. The papyrus was initially misclassified as Nabataean and remained forgotten for decades. In 2014, Hannah Cotton Paltiel, a professor at Hebrew University, examined it in the Israel Antiquities Authority’s parchment laboratory and revealed its true nature.
Her findings led to the creation of a specialized team to analyze the document’s contents. Researchers confirmed that it contained prosecutors’ notes from a trial before Roman officials on the eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 AD). Notably, the language of the document is quite dynamic, highlighting procedural strategies and discussions among the prosecutors regarding the strength of their evidence.
This case is exceptionally well-documented within the judicial context of the province of Judea. Its significance is comparable to that of Jesus’ trial, particularly in terms of the written evidence of Roman proceedings in the region.
A tax fraud scandal. The papyrus documents the actions of two defendants, Gadalias and Saulos, who operated a fraud network based on the fraudulent sale and freeing of slaves while avoiding the taxes required by Rome.
Gadalias, the son of a notary and possibly a Roman citizen, had a criminal record that included violence, extortion, and document forgery. His accomplice, Saulos, devised the scheme to evade Roman taxes, using forged documents to record non-existent transactions.
Punishment. Under Roman law, forgery and tax fraud were considered serious crimes punishable by hard labor or even the death penalty. Gadalias and Saulos’s arrest not only responded to their criminal background but also took place amid rising political tension. In fact, their case unfolded between two significant Jewish revolts: the Diaspora Revolt (115-117 AD) and the Bar Kokhba Revolt. As such, Roman authorities suspected that Gadalias and Saulos’s activities were linked to a conspiracy against the Empire.
Interestingly, the papyrus mentions Tineius Rufus, who was the governor of Judea when the Bar Kokhba Revolt erupted. Additionally, it situates the defendants’ activities around Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region in 129-130 AD. This connection implies that the Romans were suspicious of any illegal activities in the area, particularly those that could be interpreted as defiance against imperial authority.
Economic and social implications. One of the most intriguing aspects of this case is the lack of apparent economic benefit from the fraudulent freeing of slaves, which raises questions about the defendants’ motivations. Among the hypotheses experts are discussing is the possibility that the case was linked to human trafficking or to the Jewish tradition of redeeming Jewish slaves, a practice grounded in biblical precepts.
Moreover, the document provides valuable insights into the Roman system of justice in the Eastern Mediterranean. It confirms the implementation of institutions such as the governor of Judea’s judicial tours and the compulsory service of jurors in provincial courts. These structures, well-documented in Egypt, can now be validated in other regions of the Empire. It reinforces the perception of Rome as a highly organized state with a system of legal oversight that extended even to the most remote areas.
The enigma of the papyrus. The P. Cotton papyrus was discovered in the Judean Desert, likely in a cave that served as a shelter during the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Its preservation remains a mystery, given that court documents seldom survive outside Roman archives. Historians suggest that the trial associated with this document may have been interrupted by the outbreak of the conflict, prompting the defendants to go into hiding and take the document with them.
This finding is exceptionally rare and provides an unprecedented look into the system of justice in the Roman provinces of Judea and Arabia. It offers insights not only into the Empire’s legal mechanisms but also into the political and social tensions of the era, particularly in a region where resistance to Roman authority was prevalent.
Power dynamics remain unchanged. Moreover, the document sheds light on how Rome’s political elites operated. It illustrates how the Empire regulated the economy and combated fraud, even in its most remote territories. It also indicates that Romans viewed any illegal activities with suspicion, especially during times of political upheaval, and interpreted these acts as potential threats to their rule.
In the end, the dynamics of politics and power haven’t changed much since that time.
Image | Mauricio Artieda | Israel Antiquities Authority
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